MEDICAL ANIMATION TRANSCRIPT: HIV, or human immunodeficiency virus, is the retrovirus that eventually causes AIDS or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Over time, HIV infection suppresses the immune response, resulting in a spectrum of diseases leading to AIDS. HIV is transmitted from an infected person via specific bodily fluids, including blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk. White blood cells or leukocytes defend the body from infection. One group of leukocytes called T lymphocytes or T cells is part of a direct immune response against infected cells and tumor cells. During HIV infection, HIV targets and kills certain cells in the immune system. HIV attacks CD4 T cells, which are a sub-type of T cells that signal other leukocytes to attack a specific pathogen. HIV replicates inside the CD4 T cells, which not only kills them but also allows the virus to spread and infect healthy cells. As HIV continues to replicate and destroy more CD4 T cells, the body becomes defenseless, succumbing to infections. When a CD4 count drops below 200, a person is considered to have AIDS. This can take as long as ten years from the time a person is infected with HIV. This low CD4 count increases susceptibility to opportunistic infection, such as encephalitis and meningitis; debilitating illnesses, such as Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia and tuberculosis; and cancers, such as Kaposi's sarcoma. Patients can die from these opportunistic diseases, not from the HIV infection itself. Although there is no cure or vaccine for HIV infection or AIDS, medication can slow the progression of HIV infection. Antiretroviral medications, such as highly active antiretroviral therapy or HAART, combine several anti-HIV medications in a daily regimen. HAART attacks HIV at several points in its life cycle, slowing its replication. One drug in the cocktail, a fusion inhibitor, blocks HIV from binding to the cell. A second drug, reverse transcriptase inhibitor, blocks it from replicating. And a third drug, a protease inhibitor, prevents HIV from assembling a new virus. Though it is not possible to completely eliminate HIV from the body, HARRT slows progression and significantly reduces deaths from HIV-related diseases. In addition to HAART, there are other HIV medication drug classes available. Other treatment options for AIDS include specific medications for opportunistic infections. For example, licensed healthcare professionals prescribe certain antibiotics to treat tuberculosis and pneumonia. Blood tests are performed regularly to check CD4 counts and determine the efficacy of the cocktail and antiviral.

MEDICAL ANIMATION TRANSCRIPT: Mitosis is a type of cell division with many vital functions, including embryonic development, promoting tissue growth after birth, and replacing damaged or dying cells in the body. In mitosis, there is one division, and the resulting two daughter cells contain the same number of chromosomes as the parental cell. These cells are called diploid cells because they contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, with each pair containing one maternal and one paternal chromosome. After DNA replication, mitosis begins with prophase, during which chromatin condenses into chromosomes, each consisting of two identical sister chromatids. The nuclear envelope dissolves, and spindle fibers begin to grow from the cell's centrioles. During metaphase, the spindle fibers pull the chromosomes into alignment in the center of the cell. In anaphase, each chromosome, consisting of two genetically identical chromatids, splits in two. Each chromatid, now considered a single-stranded daughter chromosome, migrates to the opposite end of the cell from its twin. During telophase, nuclear envelopes reform around the chromosomes as the cell finishes dividing. Meiosis is a type of cell division with one purpose - to produce eggs and sperm called gametes. In meiosis, there are two divisions in succession, resulting in four daughter cells. Each daughter cell contains half the number of chromosomes of the initial parental cell. The daughter cells are called haploid cells because they contain 23 unpaired chromosomes. After DNA replication, the first cell division, or meiosis I, begins with prophase I, during which chromosomes condense. Late in prophase I, chromatids in each pair break and exchange corresponding sections of DNA in a process called crossing over, thus creating new combinations of genes. During metaphase I, homologous chromosome pairs line up in the center of the cell. Each pair can line up randomly from left to right in a process called independent assortment. In anaphase I, each pair of chromosomes separates, and in telophase I, the cell divides, resulting in two haploid daughter cells. The second meiotic division, or meiosis II, begins with prophase II, during which the cell prepares to divide again. In metaphase II, the chromosomes line up in the center of the cell. During anaphase II, each chromosome is pulled apart into two sister chromatids, each now considered a single-stranded chromosome. In telophase II, the two cells divide, resulting in four haploid daughter cells. Once meiosis is complete, the male and female gametes each contain a unique set of 23 single-stranded chromosomes, ultimately resulting in the genetic variability of humans. Once these gametes meet, they become a single fertilized cell called a zygote. The zygote has 46 chromosomes and continues to develop using mitosis.

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#meiosis #mitosis #celldivision

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MEDICAL ANIMATION TRANSCRIPT: Lymphatic vessels, also called lymphatics, carry a watery fluid known as lymph from body tissues, filter lymph through packets of lymphoid tissue called lymph nodes, and return it to the bloodstream through a series of larger vessels. Blood capillaries filter fluid from plasma into the tissues. The fluid, in combination with water, oxygen, and nutrients, comprises interstitial fluid in the extracellular space. Capillaries reabsorb most of the water and cellular wastes, like carbon dioxide and urea, into the venous bloodstream. Lymphatic capillaries drain the excess extracellular materials to help maintain fluid balance and immunity. Loose endothelial junctions in the lymphatic capillaries allow macromolecules and pathogens to enter, joining lymph circulation. Lymphatic capillaries converge into collecting vessels. Lymph nodes occur along these vessels. Inside a lymph node, sinuses connect the cortex, comprised of lymphocyte follicles, and the medulla, dotted with lymphocytes, macrophages, and other antigen-presenting cells. As the lymph trickles through the node, infectious pathogens and other harmful cells, such as cancerous tumor cells, encounter the immune cells, which either destroy them or retain them until an immune response can be mounted to target the infection outside the node. The cleansed lymph, consisting mainly of water, protein, and lymphocytes, exits the node via an efferent collecting vessel. The vessel wall contractions push the lymph to the next valve, which opens and allows lymph to move forward while preventing backflow. The collecting vessels combine into lymphatic trunks. Each trunk drains lymph from a particular body region and empties into one of two collecting ducts. The right lymphatic duct, which drains lymph from the right side of the head, the right arm, and the right side of the thorax to the right subclavian vein or the thoracic duct, which delivers lymph from the rest of the body to the left subclavian vein. After passing into the subclavian veins, lymph returns to the bloodstream.

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#lymphsystem #lymphnodes #lymphdrainage
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MEDICAL ANIMATION TRANSCRIPT: Epilepsy is a condition in the brain where a person has at least two seizures overtime. There is no cure for most types of epilepsy, but there are treatments that can control the seizures. These treatments include medication, diet, and surgical procedures. Medications called antiepileptic drugs are the most common treatment for epilepsy. They are also known as anticonvulsants or anti-seizure drugs. Most seizures can be controlled with one of these drugs. But a combination of drugs may be necessary. A special diet called a ketogenic diet may also help reduce some types of seizures that are not controlled by medicines. This diet is high in fats and low in carbohydrates. Talk to your healthcare provider if you are thinking about putting your child on a special diet to help with seizures. This type of diet needs to be supervised by an expert. If medications aren't working, your healthcare provider may advise a surgical procedure for some types of epilepsy to help stop seizures. During most procedures, the part of the brain causing the seizures will be removed. Vagus nerve stimulation uses a device to help reduce the number of seizures. A surgical procedure is done to implant the device. In this procedure, a stimulator device will be placed beneath the skin in the chest. A wire from the device will be attached to the vagus nerve in the neck. Once it's in place, the device will limit short bursts of electrical energy that travel through the wire to the vagus nerve. Then, the energy will travel up the nerve to the brain to help reduce seizure activity. If you have any questions about treatments for epilepsy, talk to your healthcare provider.

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#epilepsytreatment #epilepsy #seizures

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MEDICAL ANIMATION TRANSCRIPT: One of the endocrine functions of the pancreas is to secrete a hormone called insulin into the blood. Microscopic regions of beta cells in the pancreas are located in the islets of Langerhans. These beta cells release insulin hormone. The insulin molecules leave the beta cells and travel into the bloodstream to regulate blood glucose levels. After a meal, increasing amounts of glucose in the blood trigger beta cells in the islets to secrete the appropriate amount of insulin hormone, which travels through the bloodstream to target cells, where it promotes the transport of glucose into the cells. Certain tissues, such as skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, require insulin to unlock their cells before glucose can enter. Insulin attaches to specific receptors on the cell's surface, causing glucose transporter proteins in the cell membrane to open, which allows glucose to pass into the cells. In type 2 diabetes, the body usually continues to produce self-made or endogenous insulin. However, in this case, the target cells resist the effects of the insulin, or there is an insufficient amount of insulin to meet the body's needs, or both. Insulin resistance is caused by a decrease in receptors or by the presence of abnormal receptors. In many cases, a defect in insulin receptors prevents the normal effects of insulin on target cells, resulting in inadequate glucose transport into cells. Consequently, rising levels of glucose in the blood result in hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia stimulates the beta cells in the pancreas to produce more insulin in an attempt to reduce the high blood glucose level. The overworked beta cells try to keep up with the demand but gradually lose their ability to produce enough insulin. Due to the pathophysiology of hyperglycemia and the lack of insulin, the following classic symptoms of diabetes appear - polyphagia, or excessive eating; polydipsia, or excessive thirst; polyuria, or increased urine volume; and unexplained weight loss. Symptoms of type 2 diabetes that appear over time include fatigue, recurrent infections, changes in vision, pruritus or itching, and paresthesia, which is a tingling or prickling sensation in the skin. As the insulin deficiency continues, cells are unable to use sugar for energy, so the body breaks down fats and proteins to use them as an alternative source of energy. As fat breakdown continues, acidic byproducts, known as ketone bodies, accumulate in the blood, resulting in a condition called ketosis. If allowed to build up to dangerously high levels, a life-threatening condition called diabetic ketoacidosis results. An acute complication of medications for type 2 diabetes, called hypoglycemia or insulin shock, usually begins with an excessive dose of insulin or oral hypoglycemic medication. Excessive insulin or oral hypoglycemic medication causes cells to remove too much glucose from the blood, leaving an insufficient amount in the bloodstream for certain organs to acquire the constant energy supply they need to function properly. Because the brain's primary source of energy is glucose, it is the first organ affected by glucose levels below 70 milligrams per deciliter. The neurons, starved for glucose, start to malfunction, causing symptoms such as nervousness, shakiness, and confusion. If the glucose levels continue to drop, the electrical activity of neurons diminishes significantly, resulting in seizures or diabetic coma. Chronic, poorly controlled type 2 diabetes can cause degenerative tissue damage, resulting in long-term complications, such as atherosclerosis, blindness, neuropathy, and renal failure. Licensed health professionals prescribe a variety of oral hypoglycemic drugs to treat type 2 diabetes. Some treatments increase insulin production in the beta cells of the pancreas. Others decrease insulin resistance in skeletal muscle. Some treatments increase insulin sensitivity in target tissues. Others promote a slight decrease in absorption of glucose in the gut. And finally, some inhibit glucose production in the liver. Patients with type 2 diabetes can control their glucose levels primarily with diet and exercise. In addition, patients should monitor their glucose levels frequently. Blood glucose levels should fall between 70 and 130 milligrams per deciliter prior to a meal or while fasting and should be less than 180 milligrams per deciliter two hours after starting a meal. When diet, exercise, and oral hypoglycemic drugs fail to control high blood sugar, patients can administer insulin injections. Medication should be continued with the use of non-drug therapy options.

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#type2diabetes #type2diabetestreatment #diabetes

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MEDICAL ANIMATION TRANSCRIPT: Epilepsy is a condition in the brain where a person has at least two seizures over time. The basic working units of the brain are nerve cells called neurons. They send chemical and electrical messages to each other, as well as to glands and muscles. Everything we think, feel, and do is a result of this activity. Normally, these messages are sent in an orderly manner. If your child has epilepsy, groups of neurons send a lot of messages all at once. This abnormal surge of electrical activity is called a seizure. There are many types of seizures, but they can be grouped into two main categories. The first category, called generalized seizures, affects the whole brain all at once. The second category of seizures is called partial or focal seizures. They affect only one part of the brain. Symptoms can vary depending on the type of seizure. Symptoms may include loss of consciousness, muscles spasms, strange sensations, seeing or smelling things that aren't there, confusion, staring into space, or rapid blinking. Most seizures last from a few seconds to a few minutes without causing harm. If a seizure lasts longer than five minutes or if a person is hurt or in distress during the seizure, call 911. In most cases, the cause of epilepsy is unknown, but it may be caused by other conditions in the brain such as injuries, infections, birth defects, strokes, or tumors. If you have questions about epilepsy, talk to your healthcare provider.

#epilepsy #seizuredisorder #brainhealth

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MEDICAL ANIMATION TRANSCRIPT: One of the endocrine functions of the pancreas is to secrete a hormone called insulin into the blood. Microscopic regions of beta cells in the pancreas are located on the islets of Langerhans. These beta cells release insulin. After consumption of a meal, increasing amounts of glucose in the blood trigger beta cells in the islets to secrete the appropriate amount of insulin hormone, which travels through the bloodstream to target cells, where it promotes the transport of glucose into the cells. Glucose must get inside cells to participate in cellular respiration, which creates the energy needed for cellular processes. Certain tissues, such as skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, require insulin to unlock their cells before glucose can enter. Insulin attaches to specific receptors on the cell's surface, causing glucose transporter proteins in the cell membrane to open, allowing glucose to pass into the cell. As cells take up glucose, the blood glucose level falls. Type 1 diabetes is a disease in which the pancreas loses its ability to produce insulin, resulting in high blood glucose levels and other metabolic complications. In this disease, antibodies secreted by lymphocytes attack and destroy the beta cells, so the pancreas produces little or no insulin. Lack of sufficient insulin prevents glucose from entering cells, resulting in a high blood glucose concentration, a condition called hyperglycemia. Unable to pass into cells, glucose builds up in the blood. The kidneys filter out the excess glucose, which is lost in urine, resulting in glycosuria, or large quantities of glucose in the urine. Common symptoms of hyperglycemia in type 1 diabetes include polyphagia, or excessive eating; polydipsia, or excessive thirst; polyuria, or increased urine volume; and unexplained weight loss. As the insulin deficiency continues, cells are unable to use sugar for energy, so the body breaks down fats and proteins to use them as an alternative source of energy. As fat breakdown continues, acidic byproducts, known as ketone bodies, accumulate in the blood, resulting in a condition called ketosis. If allowed to build up to dangerously high levels, a life-threatening condition called diabetic ketoacidosis results. Type 1 diabetes can cause degenerative tissue damage, resulting in long-term complications, such as atherosclerosis, blindness, neuropathy, and renal dysfunction. Licensed health professionals prescribe insulin replacement therapy to treat type 1 diabetes. If a diabetic person uses a syringe to deliver doses of insulin, he or she must rotate between injection sites to prevent localized tissue damage and absorption problems. Once delivered via syringe or insulin pump, the insulin rapidly reduces hyperglycemia, facilitating transport of glucose into cells. Insulin also suppresses ketosis, restoring metabolic balance. In addition to insulin therapy, patients must manage their glucose levels closely with frequent glucose checks, which should fall between 70 and 120 milligrams per deciliter. Patients should also monitor their blood glucose level with periodic hemoglobin A1C tests, which measure the amount of glycated hemoglobin in the blood over a two to three-month period. Glycated hemoglobin is created when glucose attaches to hemoglobin within red blood cells. Glycated hemoglobin forms at a rate that increases with plasma glucose levels. The desired hemoglobin A1C level for people with diabetes is less than 7%. The higher the hemoglobin A1C level, the higher the risk of developing complications from diabetes. Other actions patients can take to monitor their glucose levels more closely are diet control and consistent exercise. By treating and controlling blood glucose levels, patients may prevent the occurrence of the complications of diabetes.

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MEDICAL ANIMATION TRANSCRIPT: Your nasal turbinates are structures that stick out from the inside walls of your nose. They're made of bone covered by a thin layer of soft tissue called nasal mucosa. The purpose of the turbinates is to humidify warm and filter air as it passes through your nose. One of your turbinates may grow too large, usually the lowest one. If this happens, airflow through your nose may be blocked. The turbinate may be so swollen that it touches your septum, which is the thin wall dividing your nose into right and left sides. If medications don't relieve your symptoms, a procedure called A Nasal Turbinate Reduction may be done to reduce the size of the swollen turbinate. During the procedure, the surgeon will make a small incision in the mucosa on the turbinate. A tool such as a microdebrider will be used to remove soft tissue , bone, or both from the turbinate. In most cases, the surgeon will only remove enough tissue to improve airflow. The rest of the turbinate will remain. To find out more about Turbinate Reduction, talk to your healthcare provider.

#nasalcongestion #BlockedAirFlow #BreathingProblems

MEDICAL ANIMATION TRANSCRIPT: Acid-base balance is the precise maintenance of the hydrogen ion concentration in blood and tissue fluids so the body will function properly. This concentration of hydrogen in body fluids is called PH, and the acidity or alkalinity of the fluid is expressed as a pH value. Normal blood pH ranges from 7.35 to 7.45. Metabolic processes constantly release acids, which freely release hydrogen ions, resulting in increased acidity and lower blood pH. In response, the body can use chemical buffers such as bases to neutralize the acids and physiological buffers to facilitate their excretion through the kidney. Respiratory alkalosis occurs when hyperventilation causes too much carbon dioxide to be exhaled. If respiration removes carbon dioxide faster than the body produces it, a carbon dioxide deficit ensues. As a result, less carbon dioxide is available to combine with water to produce carbonic acid. Less carbonic acid dissociates into fewer free hydrogen ions. A deficit of hydrogen ions raises pH and causes alkalosis. Metabolic alkalosis occurs when hydrogen ion concentration decreases or bicarbonate increases. Conditions causing metabolic alkalosis include depletion of gastric acid through chronic vomiting or nasogastric suction and introduction of excess bicarbonate such as intravenous bicarbonate solutions or antacids. Primary treatment for respiratory alkalosis is reduction of respiratory rate to allow carbon dioxide to return to normal levels. Treatment for metabolic alkalosis from excess bicarbonate intake includes decreasing bicarbonate administration while allowing the kidneys to excrete the excess. For metabolic alkalosis resulting from vomiting, administration of antiemetic drugs will reduce nausea and vomiting. ♪ [music] ♪

#Alkalosis #MetabolicAlkalosis #RespiratoryAlkalosis

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MEDICAL ANIMATION TRANSCRIPT: Organic molecules are compounds found in, or produced by living things. Each molecule contains two or more elements, including carbon. Carbon has four valence electrons and is able to bond with other elements that can contribute another four electrons to complete its outer shell. Carbon atoms can form long chains, or carbon backbones as a base for a variety of organic molecules. Carbon's ability to bond with itself and other elements, allow it to form complex molecules necessary for life, such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates have a two to one ratio of hydrogen to carbon and oxygen. For example, glucose has 12 hydrogen atoms, six carbon atoms, and six oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates are important energy sources for cells. Proteins are chains of amino acids. All amino acids consist of a central carbon atom connected to a hydrogen atom, an amino group, and a carboxyl group. The radical group differentiates each amino acid. Amino acids join together to form peptides. Longer chains of amino acids are called polypeptides. Groups of polypeptides join to form proteins. Proteins have a complex, coiled, and folded structure that determines their function. Proteins provide structural support, regulate the body, transport other molecules, aid in chemical reactions, fight foreign invaders, allow for contraction of muscles, and bind cells together. Lipids are organic molecules composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Fatty acids are lipids consisting of a carboxyl group, a chain of hydrocarbons, and a methyl group. Triglycerides are three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule. Lipids are important for energy storage and thermal insulation in body fat. Nucleic acids are composed of repeating units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide has three segments, a monosaccharide, a carbon-nitrogen ring, and one or more phosphate groups. Nucleic acids such as DNA are important for storage and transmission of genetic information.

#OrganicMolecules #carbohydrates #proteins

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