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By the early 20th century, Imperial Japan had established itself as the dominant force in Asia. Through ruthless military conquests, the small island nation greatly expanded its borders. The rising imperial power soon set its sights on conquering much of East Asia. By 1921, nearly a third of Japan’s national budget was dedicated to building one of the most powerful navies in the world.

In response to Japan and other world powers rapidly expanding their naval strength, the Washington Naval Treaty was signed in 1922 to impose restrictions on the size and number of warships. However, American military planners were not convinced—rightfully so—that Imperial Japan would adhere to these new restrictions for very long. The United States, surrounded by two enormous oceans, seemed increasingly vulnerable.

In War Plan Orange (first outlined in 1919 and revised in subsequent years), military planners devised strategies for a possible war with Imperial Japan. Particular attention was given to key targets like the United States' West Coast, Pearl Harbor, and the vital Suez Canal. With millions of square kilometers of open Pacific Ocean, it was possible for the Imperial Japanese Navy to go undetected for weeks before launching a surprise attack. Scout cruisers were the U.S. Navy’s primary means of searching for enemy fleets, but they were too slow, too few in number, and too costly to adequately cover the vast Pacific. Aircraft of the era also lacked the range to scout large sections of the ocean. In response, Admiral William A. Moffett, Chief of the U.S. Bureau of Aeronautics, advocated for a radical alternative.

Under Moffett's direction, the United States began experimenting with rigid airships in 1923. Airships appeared to be the ideal solution for enhancing the Navy’s long-range scouting capabilities. As "scout cruisers of the air," airships combined the extended range of surface vessels with speeds nearly as fast as aircraft. The Navy’s first two rigid airships, the USS Shenandoah (ZR-1) and USS Los Angeles (ZR-3), helped pioneer the operational intricacies of airship use in a military setting. Navy crews trained for long-range day missions and practiced mooring to ships at sea to replenish fuel and helium. The Navy also perfected the practice of carrying, launching, and recovering aircraft in mid-flight, which was considered vital for airship defense.

In 1929, construction began on two of the largest airships the world had ever seen: the USS Akron (ZRS-4) and the USS Macon (ZRS-5). Defended by machine guns and equipped with internal hangars capable of carrying five Curtiss F9C Sparrowhawk biplane fighters, these airships were scouting warships in every sense. If they proved successful, there were plans to build at least a dozen more to help patrol the vast Pacific Ocean and keep America safe.

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Special thanks to Scott Lowther for providing valuable insight for this video. Be sure to check out his amazing resource on the history and documentation of unbuilt and obscure aerospace projects!
https://www.aerospaceprojectsreview.com/

Actor featured: Peter Baker (https://uk.linkedin.com/in/bakermediapeter)

In 1969 Lockheed produced one of the most unusual design studies in existence. The study sought to determine the potential uses and capabilities that the largest aircraft technically feasible using 1960’s era technology could offer the United States. The result was the Lockheed CL-1201, a nuclear-powered aircraft with an enormous 1,120 foot wingspan and a weight about fifteen times heavier than the next largest aircraft in existence. Although Lockheed’s concept is now widely known by aviation enthusiasts, Lockheed’s original study is nowhere to be found, having either been lost or destroyed. Currently, the best source of information about the CL-1201 is a paper published for the 1982 AIAA 2nd International Very Large Vehicles Conference which references several aspects of the original report.

The report outlines two variants of the CL-1201 studied. The first was an airborne aircraft carrier armed with 24 aircraft and long-range cruise missiles, and the second, a military transport capable of carrying up to 400 combat-equipped troops, 472 specialized crew, and over a thousand tons of mechanized equipment and supplies. Multiple CL-1201 aircraft would function in close coordination during combat use.

The project was more than just an exercise in conceptual engineering; it was a direct response to Cold War tensions of the time. The CL-1201 would offer the United States an unprecedented ability to respond to any crisis in a matter of hours, no matter the circumstances. Given the enormous engineering complexity and costs that would be involved, the CL-1201 never made it off the drawing board. But much of the design, and circumstances that prompted the study, are still a mystery.

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For centuries, the North Pole remained elusive. Early attempts to reach it were primarily motivated by the search for a navigable route through the Arctic to Asia, known as the Northwest Passage. Later, explorers focused specifically on reaching the Pole itself. But for centuries, reaching it seemed impossible. The polar environment was extremely unforgiving. Located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean, the North Pole is covered by a vast expanse of sea ice which constantly changes due to wind, ocean currents and seasonal melts. Explorers tried to reach the pole using ships, dogsleds, and even traveling by foot. The first verified, and officially recognized expedition to reach the North Pole didn’t occur until 1926 (although several explorers claimed to have reached it earlier). It was first reached using the airship Norge, which flew overhead, but did not land on the surface.

In the late 1920’s, accomplished explorer Sir Hubert Wilkins became convinced that a submarine would provide the ultimate means of reaching the North Pole. A submarine could travel for extended periods beneath the ice, avoiding the extreme hazards above which had caused earlier expeditions to fail. Carrying the latest scientific equipment, the submarine’s crew could conduct valuable meteorological, oceanographic, biological, magnetic, and spectrographic experiments.

Wilkin’s submarine would be called the Nautilus. It was a retired WW1-era submarine that had been extensively modified by renowned Naval Architect Simon Lake. The Nautilus featured a heavily reinforced bow, a shock absorber and sledge runners to protect it from collision with sea ice. A diving compartment and airlock was also added to allow divers to explore the depths while the submarine remained submerged. Most importantly, the Nautilus was fitted with three ice drills, allowing the submarine to recharge batteries, refresh air and even allow the crew to exit while the submarine still remained below the ice.

The Nautilus and her crew of 20 men began their expedition to the North Pole in June of 1931.
None of them realized how grueling their journey would be, and almost immediately things began to go wrong.

In nature, anything that flies, possesses bilateral symmetry. But nothing in nature flies supersonic.

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Bilateral symmetry is an unspoken assumption in aircraft design. Anything in nature that flies, from the smallest insect to the largest bird, possesses symmetry. But birds don't fly supersonic.

In the 1950’s Robert Thomas Jones, a brilliant NASA engineer, began developing a radical new wing arrangement called an oblique wing (also referred to as a skewed wing). The wing design was characterized by a wing that could pivot into a unique angled configuration in relation to the aircraft’s fuselage. The design offered several advantages over more conventional swept wings. An oblique wing’s ability to pivot into a straight wing made it ideal for low speed flight (improving efficiency and take-off/landing performance), but at transonic and supersonic speeds, the angled orientation minimized both wave and induced drag, leading to improved overall aerodynamic efficiency. With lower drag at higher speeds, oblique wing aircraft would require less thrust to maintain a given speed, resulting in reduced fuel consumption and operating costs. Compared to other variable geometry wings, oblique wings would also be lighter, less complex and have fewer drawbacks like a shifting center of lift.

Jones proved his theories through wind tunnel tests and with small scale remote control models. Promising results prompted NASA to undertake more intensive research during the 1970s. The first major step was the propeller-driven Oblique Wing Remotely Piloted Research Aircraft (OWRPRA) which first took flight in 1976. At the same time, aviation leaders Boeing and Lockheed were invited to study oblique wings to assess their benefits to commercial air travel. In 1979 the NASA Ames-Dryden-1 (AD-1), a subsonic, human piloted oblique wing aircraft began rigorous flight testing.

NASA’s research efforts validated many of Jones’s theories, and the oblique wing demonstrated promise in real world flight. There were plans to follow the subsonic AD-1 program with a supersonic testing program using a modified U.S Navy F-8 fighter, but the program was cancelled early on in development. Budget constraints and shifting priorities have largely stalled intensive oblique wing research programs since the early 1990s. There are still widespread reservations about the flying qualities of highly asymmetrical aircraft. Flight control at extreme wing pivots is unfavorable and requires automated systems to augment flight control. Using modern flight control technologies and advanced materials, many of these drawbacks could be overcome. Oblique wings are still considered a viable concept for large transports and many are convinced that they will eventually be adopted. The advantages are simply too great to ignore.

Key Research: “Thinking Obliquely: Robert T. Jones, the Oblique Wing, NASA’s AD-1 Demonstrator” by Bruce I. Larrimer (2019): https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/ThinkingObliquely-ebook.pdf

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By the 1930’s it was well understood that military aircraft would play a crucial role in future conflicts. But there was an issue that had challenged aircraft designers since the dawn of flight. Large, heavy aircraft, like bombers, could carry plenty of fuel, allowing them to fly great distances, but smaller planes like fighters needed to be light and agile could carry only a small amount, limiting their range. This mismatch in flight range meant that on long range missions, bombers couldnt rely on the protection of escorting fighters.

In 1932 a pioneering Soviet engineer named Vladamir Vakhmistrov proposed a novel solution to this problem. Vakhmistrov realized that larger aircraft could be used to carry smaller ones to their targets where they could then be deployed to defend the bombers whenever needed. This would solve the short range problem of smaller, lighter aircraft. Normally, such an arraignment would significantly reduce the bomber’s own range, given the extra weight and drag caused by carrying aircraft. But Vakhmistrov's brilliant solution was to have the fighters also operate their engines during flight, contributing to the bomber’s total thrust. In fact, the fighters would help increase the bombers performance by providing more power than without the fighters attached. While connected to the carrier, the fighters would draw fuel from additional fuel reserves fitted inside the bomber’s wings. Vakhmistrov also proposed using the flying aircraft carriers for more than just protection. The fighters could be carried to far away targets to conduct more accurate dive bombing. They could also stay airborne to guard borders and engage incoming aircraft when needed.

Vakhmistrov would call his creation, Zveno (where in Russian the word ‘Zveno’ means ‘Chain Link’ or a ‘flight’ as pertains to a combat unit). The basis of Vakmistrov’s flying aircraft carriers would be the Tupolev TB-1 and later TB-3, the largest bombers of their time. Over a dozen configurations would be tested using various fighter aircraft. But development would be protracted, and it wouldn't be until the summer of 1941 that Zveno carriers would help make a meaningful contribution to the defense of the Soviet Union.

Key Research: “Vakhmistrov's Circus: Zveno Combined Aircraft - the Projects, Developments, Testing and Combat” by Mikhail Maslov (2017)

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In the 1950s many believed that railways were an antiquated 19th century technology, soon to be replaced by faster and more convenient forms of transportation. Short and medium-haul jet travel offered unparalleled speed, while the automobile promised unmatched flexibility and convenience. In France, the fastest express trains (Le Mistral) only averaged speeds of just 120km/h.

Although French engineers had set remarkable railway speed records during the decade, including reaching 331 km/h in 1955, few considered railways to have much of a future. To compete against newer forms of transport, trains would need faster service speeds. This would require engineering new locomotives, as well as rebuilding rail lines with greater precision, gentler curves, smaller grades and in-cab signaling. The effort and resources required seemed too great to be worthwhile.

Opening in 1964, the Shinkansen was the world’s first true high-speed railway. Connecting Japan’s two largest cities (in the 1960s), Tokyo and Osaka, and travelling at speeds in excess of 120 mph (200 km/h), the new specially-designed Shinkansen trains had the highest service speeds in the world.

While the Shinkansen was viewed with admiration around the world, French railway engineers were still world leaders in areas of acceleration, braking, and electric pickup at high speeds. In fact, many of the technologies used on the Shinkansen were pioneered by French railway engineers.

Inspired by the Japanese experience, the SNCF began experimental work on a high-speed rail network for France. Called the TGV ( Train à Grande Vitesse, or "high-speed train" in French), they focused on a more cost-effective approach that would leverage existing infrastructure as well as newly developed technologies like gas turbine propulsion. But the road to high-speed rail in France would be fraught with skepticism, opposition and competing visions for the future of transport.

References:

Jacob Meunier, On the Fast Track. French Railway Modernization and the Origins of the TGV, 1944–1983 (London: Greenwood 2002)

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More than 50 years after making its first flight, the F-15 Eagle remains one of the most capable fighter aircraft ever developed.

The F-15 was born from the difficult lessons learned during the Vietnam War. In the late 1950s, Air Force planners were confident that the advent of powerful new radars and long-range air-to-air missiles had rendered close-range aerial combat a thing of the past. So fighter jets like venerable the Mcdonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom were not engineered to be light or agile like their predecessors. Instead, they were designed to be heavily-loaded with missiles and carry powerful radars. Their pilots were no longer trained to dogfight, as they would engage the enemy at great distances, well beyond visual range.

But in the Vietnam War, military planners learned the hard way that the age of dogfighting was far from over. American pilots were being downed at alarming rates. The Friend or Foe (IFF) systems designed to identify enemy targets proved unreliable, forcing Air Force pilots to get in close to visually identify targets. At close-range, up against more agile Soviet-built MiGs, the F-4s were at a disadvantage. They were less agile than the MiGs, lacked a gun for close-range combat, and their pilots weren’t properly trained. To make matters worse, 1967, the Soviet Union looked set to unveil what appeared to be a new super-fighter built for extreme maneuverability.

The devastating experience from Vietnam and concerns being outclassed in the skies pushed the United States to develop a new air-superiority fighter that could face off with any current or future Soviet-built fighter. The result would be a twin-engine, high-performance, all-weather air superiority fighter known for its incredible acceleration and agility. Engineered from the ground up for tactical dominance in any air space, the F-15 holds the distinction of over a hundred aerial victories without a single defeat.

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In the late 1950’s a new threat emerged from the Soviet Union for which the Americans were seemingly caught off guard. The latest generation of Soviet nuclear-powered submarines could reach incredible speeds. The Alfa-Class submarine under development at the time would eventually be capable of travelling at 41 knots (76 kph/47 mph) while fully submerged. At such speeds, these submarines could follow American fleets while easily evading ASW ships. Large, fast, ocean-going hydrofoils seemed like the answer.

The principle behind a hydrofoil was simple enough; by using water as a medium of flight, much like an airplane uses air, a hydrofoil could ‘fly’ rather than plow through water. Using a set of underwater wing-like structures called foils, these ships could lift out of the water as they accelerated, significantly reducing drag and allowing for much higher speeds and efficiency.

The first practical hydrofoil was demonstrated in 1906 by Italian inventor Enrico Forlanini. In the decades that followed, hydrofoils were progressively refined and in the 1950’s the first passenger hydrofoils were beginning to emerge on rivers and lakes. Almost all of these early hydrofoils used a configuration commonly referred to as ‘surface-piercing’ where the foils operate along the surface of the water. The configuration is dynamically stable and self-correcting as a result of the foil’s shape (typically curved) and the position of the center of gravity in relation to the foil. A major drawback is that operation along the water’s surface makes surface-piercing hydrofoils easily disturbed by waves and rough conditions. Surface-piercing hydrofoils are generally considered unsuitable for open ocean travel.

In the 1950’s the U.S. Navy took significant interest in a second hydrofoil configuration commonly referred to as ‘fully submerged’. Unlike surface-piercing hydrofoils, fully submerged hydrofoils have foils that operate entirely underwater beneath waves. This makes them far more suitable in rough conditions and open water. A major drawback is that they are not dynamically stable and require continual adjustments to the foil angle of attack to vary the lift generated. For decades an automated method of controlling the foils remained elusive.

With new emerging technologies in the 1950's and 1960's, like sophisticated sensors, autopilots and computers, the fully submerged hydrofoil configuration became far more practical. The U.S. Navy saw them as a potentially ground-breaking solution, ideally suited for ASW. Research and development efforts would culminate in a series of prototype ships, the most impressive being the 320-ton USS Plainview.

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In the late 1940’s and early 1950’s the Soviet Union was in critical need of newer, more modern civil airliners. Existing aircraft like the Lisunov Li-2 (a license-build derivative of the Douglas DC-3) and Ilyushin Il-12 were small, slow, and outdated when compared to their western counterparts. Travelling across the vast expanses of the Soviet Union was measured in days due multiple refueling stops, and often unpredictable weather.

By 1953 plans were underway to solve the Soviet Union's airliner shortfall, but one pioneering aircraft designer named Andrei Tupolev was committed to propelling Soviet civil aviation well into the future. By 1953, the British de Havilland Comet was beginning to prove itself in passenger service. It flew nearly twice as fast as the latest generation of piston powered airliners, and much higher. With its speed and ability to fly above most weather, the Comet was proving to be much more convenient and comfortable. Tupolev was convinced that jet power was exactly what the Soviet Union needed, but Soviet leadership was skeptical. Jet engines were relatively new and unproven. There were lingering questions about long-term reliability, fuel consumption, and whether the resources needed to retrain Soviet pilots could be justified. More modern piston airliners seemed to be a more sensible path forward.

Realizing that Soviet leadership would be unwilling to commit significant time and resources required to develop a jet airliner like the de Havilland Comet, Tupolev proposed an alternative approach. Having just finished designing the jet-powered Tu-16 heavy bomber, Tupolev proposed converting the aircraft into an airliner. Doing so would save significant engineering time, allowing for the airliner to be introduced within just 3 years. It would also be far less expensive, as factories were already configured to manufacture Tu-16 components that could be reused on the airliner, like engines, wings, landing gear and avionics. The approach would allow the new jetliner to enter service in 1956 - years ahead of the Americans. It was an irresistible proposition, but like the British, the Soviets would pay a heavy price for being the first to introduce jet travel.

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